Interviewing in action in a multicultural world pdf download

Counseling is considered to be an integral and central part of guidance. The process of counselling helps an individual find solution to a problem and also helps in the overall development of an individual. Thus, counselling has emerged as a two-way process that involves two individuals and mutual cooperation between them. Counseling enables an individual to gain self-understanding and develop self-acceptance.

In this sense, the aim of counseling is the same as guidance. Counselling also helps an individual adjust to his environment and conditions and lead a happier life. Some of the major purposes of counseling generally accepted by counselors are given below:.

The process of counseling passes through certain stages which can be broadly classified as follows:. In addition to this, parents and the community also play a significant role in providing guidance to the children. Basically, a counselor is a trained professional expected to carry out guidance functions in the school.

A counselor functions systematically after carefully evolving a school guidance program by. Next to the Counsellor in the guidance program, is the Career Master. Guidance is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. In the absence of these, the need-based minimum guidance programs could be organized in schools. The following steps are involved in the organization of minimum guidance activities in schools:. Free Options:.

This easy-to-use platform will make it simple to recreate websites with built-in tools, however, there is no full publicly-facing option available.

Making content publicly available requires hosting space such as the LAMP stack see below. Developers may create their own websites in Cascade Server, tailored to the specific needs of their units. Independent developers will implement websites using highly customized layouts, workflows, and CMS features and functionality. Microsoft SharePoint Blog. You are also likely to realize that some of the material which you initially thought was important is only of marginal relevance to the research question and needs to be omitted.

You should organize this section carefully, so that you communicate to your reader that you have a clear sense of purpose in setting about your research project Neuman, , p. A mistake that many students make is that they approach this section as if they were writing a discursive essay on the topic. Doing a research project is not a good vehicle for conducting your own personal enquiry into an area that you have not read about and have no conceptual understanding of.

I do not know much about it and have not yet read much that has been written by psychologists on the issue. Rather you should actively promote your research idea as something important and worthwhile. I have a good basic knowledge of the literature in this area and understand the central concepts and theories. I have sufficient conceptual understanding to provide a basis for a clear research question and for a systematic research investigation.

The nature of the research question determines what material will be included in the context section 2 discussed above. It also provides the basis for decisions about what methodology you will use. This is because the methodology will be an account of a series of systematic steps which are designed to provide an answer to your research question. This does not mean that you must begin with a clear research question.

At the start the questions in your mind may be quite broad or vague. They will, however, provide a basis for your literature search. Then, as you read the literature and get to grips with the relevant concepts and theories you will be able to refine your questions. You are advised to read one or more of the following: Barker, Pistrang and Elliot , pp. Smith and Osborn provide examples of the kinds of broad research questions used in phenomenological research.

The research question can take the form of one or more questions or it can be a statement of one or more goals for the research. Whatever form it takes, by the time you write the final proposal it needs to be stated clearly and succinctly. One of the functions of the context section is to prepare the reader for the research question. You can do this by selecting material which shows how your question grows out of the explorations and investigations of an existing body of research and is well-defined and clearly situated within existing psychological theory.

Avoid selecting a question that has already been clearly answered by existing research. During the last one hundred years psychologists have discovered many things and some of the things you would like to find out have already been extensively explored. This could be a good starting question to direct you into doing a project on depression.

However a large amount of research has already been done describing the experiences of depressed people. You will need to read quite a bit of it so that you can refine your question. Living in South Africa, you have the opportunity to do original research quite easily. Much of the published research is done in Europe and North America and we can expect to find many differences if we repeat it in the multicultural context of South Africa.

In addition, there are many fertile research questions which relate to the specific socioeconomic, political and cultural conditions of our society.

The best way to solve many of these problems is to design your project round a research area that is current in the literature. In such cases much of the basic conceptual work will have been done and you will be able to identify a focused question which can contribute to a larger ongoing research project. At Honours level you are not expected to do original research. You should aim to find a research question which lends itself to investigation with a small project, since, of necessity, an Honours level research project will be on a small scale.

It is quite possible to do these things and fail to obtain any information that is of much psychological value at all, let alone actually answer your question! Remember that the method is in the service of the research question — it is not the other way round i. At this stage, your research question may well become operationalized and be translated into something more precise. Do not simply plunge into an account of psychological tests and scales, without making it clear how they relate to your research question.

Methods involve a series of skilled activities which can only be learned with practice and most students will only acquire these skills as they do their research! So it is important to use a method that your supervisor understands and is familiar with.

Ideally your supervisor should have had experience of using the methodology several times with his or her own research or with other students. Do not ask supervisors to supervise a methodology they have never used before.

It is the purpose of the method section to tell the reader what that plan is. In order to achieve this it must describe a series of technical steps which will make up the overall research process. These steps need to be described completely and fully in a systematic order. In writing this section, you need to think through your method and offer a step by step description of everything that you will do. This is more difficult than it looks and students frequently have difficulty describing their methodology in detail, even though they think they know what they are going to do.

General terms describing a methodological approach are not enough. When using these methods, data collection can take a variety of forms. Similarly it is not enough to say that you will conduct interviews.

If you are following a specific interview procedure set out in the literature, refer to the place where it is described. However, in order to show that the procedure is suited to your research question, you will need to elaborate or explain some of the details.

But the details of putting it into practice need to be worked out carefully in relation to the nature of particular research questions. In the same way, if you plan to use a questionnaire, you must specify the detailed procedures which will be used in designing the questionnaire. Where you are using an existing questionnaire describe it and provide a reference to where it is published. You should provide one or more references to articles of chapters in the literature where the method is described.

You should do this even if you are adapting an existing method. Providing a reference can simplify your account of your method, as you will not need to describe in fine detail procedures which are already described in the existing literature. The method section needs to be organized into subsections which need to be chosen in terms of what is relevant to your particular research approach.

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association American Psychological Association, makes the following recommendation: Replace the impersonal term subjects with a more descriptive term when possible and appropriate — participants, individuals, college students, children, or respondents, for example.

Subjects and sample our appropriate when discussing statistics and subjects may also be appropriate when there has been no direct consent by the individual involved in the study e. How does an individual get to qualify for inclusion in your study?

Usually there are limitations set on such aspects as age, gender, ethnic group. In some studies, specific categories of individuals may be excluded from participation.

You must explain how you will ensure that your participants meet the set criteria. How many participants will there be? How was this number determined? Data collection methods vary considerably and include such activities as administering questionnaires and psychological tests, interviewing, running focus groups Kelly, b; Wilkinson, , asking for a written description, observing behaviour live or on videotape, and collecting articles from newspapers or magazines.

In many studies several data collection methods are used together. In describing them, ensure that you describe all the methods you will be using and how they will be implemented, and that you describe the procedures involved in collecting your data.

For example, if you use tests, you will need to describe the conditions under which they will be administered group, individual, by mail, etc. You must show how the specific quantitative techniques you refer to are relevant to your research.

Make sure that your procedures are described in sufficient detail so that another person could carry them out. However, where you will be using standard scoring, coding, or data processing methods, you can be brief so long as you cite a reference which describes the procedures which you are following. If you are going to develop your own methods, then you need to explain in some detail how you will go about this. In these cases, the proposal simply needs a sentence or two to point this out. For comprehensive coverage of reliability and validity in quantitative research see Tredoux Miles and Huberman , chapter 10 provide a thorough account of methods to ensure the validity of conclusions in qualitative research, and Kvale , chapter 13 examines validity in qualitative research in the context of different contemporary perspectives on the philosophy of science.

Note: This should not form a separate section of the proposal; the relevant information should be incorporated in appropriate places within the methodology section. At the phase of data collection, you need to address the question as to whether your procedures will yield valid data.

Or are you going to develop new methods for the purposes of this study? In this case, you will need to explain in some detail how you plan to develop them. In particular you may need to comment on whether instruments developed in Europe or North America are likely to be valid and reliable with a South African sample. In the case of qualitative data, you also need to address the question of validity.

For example, if you are using interviews, what steps will be taken to ensure that you accurately understand the personal meanings of which participants speak and that the information obtained is not distorted or biased Kelly, c; Seidman, ? For data reduction and interpretation, you also need to address issues of validity. How will you ensure that your conclusions are valid?

It is just as important to address these questions when using qualitative methods as it is when using quantitative ones Kelly, a; Seidman, ; Smith, Whatever your question and method, you will probably need to pay attention to aspects of internal and external validity.

Internal validity refers to whether conclusions you draw about causal relationships are valid. You are advised to follow the above structure closely.

If you do not, it is likely that the proposal will fail to demonstrate to readers that you are adequately prepared to go ahead with your research project. However, you should use your judgement with regard to the sub- headings that will be needed in the Method section.

Methods vary so widely that a general prescription cannot cater for all the methods that may be used. So select subheadings which reflect the structure of your own method.

Of course, research proposals could be written in other ways. They could be longer or shorter. They could be more sketchy or more detailed. They could follow different conventions. However, the guidelines greatly simplify the task of the staff who will read your proposal and give them a basis for evaluating it objectively. They provide the criteria against which your proposal will be evaluated, so, by studying them, you know what is expected by the members of the committees who will review your proposal.

These provide a good example of the kind of criteria that are routinely used in the Department of Psychology. Furthermore, in most areas of professional work you have to follow guidelines set out by the organization you are working for. Charmaz advises that detailed, line-by-line Initial Coding as it is out- lined below is perhaps more suitable for interview transcripts than for researcher-generated field notes. But Clarke , in her postmodern approach to grounded theory, stresses the need to examine the nonhuman material ele- ments of our social world that will be found in field notes and artifacts.

It is not required during Initial Coding, but since one of the eventual goals of grounded theory is to formulate categories from codes, I occasionally include not only a Process Code e. These referents may or may not later evolve into categories, dimensions, or properties of the data as analysis continues: [I: Last week you were talking about the snobby girls at lunchroom. So what kind of, who are your friends?

Like, what kind of people do you hang out with? No, in school. Codes in parentheses or accompa- nied with question marks can be part of the process for analytic follow-up or memo writing.

One major facet of Initial Coding to grounded theory methodologists is the search for processes — participant actions that have antecedents, causes, conse- quences, and a sense of temporality.

Also during this or later cycles of grounded theory coding, there will be a search for the properties and dimensions of categories — conceptual ideas that bring together similarly-coded and related passages of data. These cat- egories and their properties may or may not be developed further during Second Cycle coding. Notice that memo writing also serves as a code- and category-generating method. Tiffany is aware of the cliques, their attributed labels, and their accompanying stereotypes at school.

Emotion Coding and Values Coding tap into the inner cognitive systems of participants. Emotion Coding, quite simply, labels the feelings participants may have experienced. Versus Coding acknowledges that humans are frequently in conflict, and the codes identify which individuals, groups, or systems are struggling for power.

Critical studies lend themselves to Versus Codes. Evaluation Coding focuses on how we can analyze data that judge the merit and worth of programs and policies. Applications Emotion Coding is appropriate for virtually all qualitative studies, but par- ticularly for those that explore intrapersonal and interpersonal participant experiences and actions. Desperate and 9 lonely. Emotion Codes alone can be applied to data very similar in content and context — e. Which emotions are present during child custody hearings?

Which emotions are present during the signing of legal paperwork related to divorce? Also acknowledge that emotional states are very complex, and single experiences can include multiple or conflicting emotions. And since emotional responses are intricately woven with our value, attitude, and belief systems,Values Coding also becomes a critical concurrent method.

During data collection, explore the participant emotions before anger, and scan your data during analysis when an ANGER code is present to determine the trig- gering emotion and its appropriate code.

Developmentally, middle childhood approximately ages 8—9 is a period of emotional ambivalence in which children experience new emotions but do not necessarily have the vocabulary to describe them. Some young people and adults may use metaphors and similes to explain their feelings e. But if a metaphoric phrase seems to evocatively — if not more accurately — capture the experience, consider keeping it as the code of choice. Researchers may find themselves making several inferences about the subtextual emo- tional experiences of some participants in selected settings and contexts.

Stay particularly attuned to participant body language and the nuances of voice. Each major discipline psychology, sociology, human communication, human development, education, etc. The subject is intricately complex, so explore the liter- ature in your field of study to assess the conceptual frameworks, operating def- initions, and theories regarding emotions.

Though each construct has a different meaning,Values Coding, as a term, subsumes all three. Briefly, a value is the importance we attribute to oneself, another person, thing, or idea. An attitude is the way we think and feel about oneself, another person, thing, or idea. Applications Values Coding is appropriate for virtually all qualitative studies, but particularly for those that explore cultural values and intrapersonal and interpersonal par- ticipant experiences and actions in case studies.

Values Codes can be determined a priori beforehand as Provisional Codes, or constructed during coding of the data. Values Coding is applicable not only to interview transcripts, but also to field notes in which naturalistic participant actions are documented. What a participant states are his values, attitudes, and beliefs may not always be truthful or harmonize with his observed actions and interactions. Example The types of Values Codes in the example below are distinguished through the use of V: value , A: attitude , and B: belief , though it can sometimes be a slippery task to determine which participant statement is which type.

CAREER Analysis If you have coded units according to values, attitudes, and beliefs, the next step is to categorize them and reflect on their collective meaning, interaction, and interplay, working under the premise that the three constructs are part of an interconnected system. The quantitative data, how- ever, transform meaning into numbers for statistical analysis, yet still has its place in such fields as psychology, opinion research, and organizational studies.

Also, these quantitative scales assume direction and intensity of a value, attitude, and belief, necessitating a fixed, linear continuum of response e. Qualitative inquiry provides richer opportunities for gathering and assessing, in language-based mean- ings, what the participant values, believes, thinks, and feels about social life. But if the study is critical ethnography, for example, then the latter code may be more appropri- ate.

Values Coding is values-laden. He observed in Teachers versus Technocrats that this social division extends throughout educator subculture during times of stress rather than daily business pp. Moieties exist in many facets of social life, and there is generally an asymmetrical power balance between them, a duality that manifests itself as an X VS.

Y code e. Applications Versus Coding is appropriate for policy studies, discourse analysis, and qualitative data sets that suggest strong conflicts within, among, and between participants. He or she examines the power that holds patterns in place, how people accept or struggle against them.

Example In a study of teachers responding to state developed fine arts standards for educational achievement Hager et al. Strong conflicts were evident in the data as participants openly shared their perspectives. I tend to personalize projects for the students. Analysis Conflicting personnel, perspectives, policies, philosophies, curricula, practices, etc. In the study profiled in the example above, the three final moiety categories that subsumed all otherVersus Codes were: Us [teachers] vs.

Them [all other personnel, such as principals, school districts, the state department of education, state universities, etc. Our Way [experienced educators working at the local level who know their art and their students] Con-form [conformity to prescribed and standardized curricula] vs. Social change theory also suggests that humans are rarely in conflict with abstract concepts e. Ground your initial Versus Coding in actual, observable conflicts.

Abstract moiety categories can emerge during Second Cycle coding and later stages of analysis. Data are reviewed to find and juxtapose inconsis- tencies and contradictions that inhibit professional practice and decision- making. Sentence couplings such as these can be categorized appropriately and exam- ined by practitioners for reflection and action, or converted toVersus Codes for categorization and analysis.

Conflicts are contextual, nuanced, and each side has its own story to tell. Nevertheless,Versus Coding makes evident the power issues at hand as humans often perceive them — as binaries. Description focuses on patterned observations or participant responses of attributes and details that assess quality. Comparison explores how the program measures up to a stan- dard or ideal.

Prediction provides recommendations for change, if needed, and how those changes might be implemented. Evaluation Coding can emerge from the evaluative perspective of the researcher or from the qualitative commentary provided by participants. Selected coding methods profiled in this manual can be applied to or supple- ment Evaluation Coding e. Example The stewards of a community church surveyed its congregational membership to gather written data on their perceptions of worship services and program- ming.

Selected individuals were interviewed for more in-depth response. A 45 year-old male who had recently left the church talks to a steward about his experiences. I wanted things to move on. Types of change to examine are shifts in participant skills, attitudes, feelings, behaviors, and knowledge.

Evaluation data can derive from individual interviews, focus groups, partic- ipant observation, surveys, and documents. Individuals each have their own opinions, so expect to find, and thus analyze and present, a wide range of responses, not just an overall assessment. There are many forms of evaluation: outcome, implementation, prevention, summative, formative, etc.

See Patton for an authoritative and full description of approaches, particularly for processual evaluation, and Stringer for the facilitation and implementa- tion of change as part of action research projects. Rely primarily on what the partici- pants themselves — the primary stakeholders — say and do.

Dramaturgical Coding, Motif Coding, and Narrative Coding draw from various literary traditions for their unique coding assignments to explore underlying sociological and psychological constructs. Dramaturgical Coding approaches cultural life as performance and its par- ticipants as characters in social dramas. Though these methods appear highly systematic, they can lead toward rich arts-based presentations. Verbal Exchange Coding is H.

Bud Goodall, Jr. Interview transcripts become monologue, soliloquy, and dialogue. Field notes and video of naturalis- tic social action represent improvised scenarios with stage directions. Environments, participant dress, and artifacts are viewed as scenery, costumes, and hand properties.

Dramaturgical Codes apply the terms and conventions of character, play script, and production analysis onto qualitative data. For character, these terms include such items as: 1.

Participant-actor objectives — motives in the form of action verbs: OBJ 2. Conflicts or obstacles confronted by the participant-actor which prevent her from achieving her objectives: CON 3. Participant-actor tactics or strategies to deal with conflicts or obstacles and to achieve her objectives: TAC 4. Dramaturgical Coding attunes the researcher to the qualities, perspectives, and drives of the participant. It also provides a deep understanding of how humans in social interaction interpret and manage conflict.

Dramaturgical Coding is best applied to self-standing, inclusive vignettes, episodes, or stories in the data record. I never looked at it that way. Also acknowledge that an Objective might also include not just what the participant-actor wants but what she wants other people to do. The attitudes, emotions, and subtexts clue you to the internal perspectives of the participant-actor during these situations.

Another dramaturgical character concept is the superobjective — the overall or ultimate goal of the participant in the social drama. But additional stories culled from interviews and observations, coded appropriately, may reinforce that superobjective as the primary theme or reveal a different one at work within her. Dramaturgical Coding is also applicable to field note data in which two or more participants interact in daily routines or are observed in conflict with each other. Comparing and contrasting their individual objectives and tactics as actions and reactions cyclically progress deepens your understanding of power relationships and the processes of human agency.

These infer- ences can sometimes be incorrect, and a follow-up interview with the partic- ipant-actor may be necessary for confirmation. Motif Coding may be better applied to story-based data extracted from interview transcripts or participant-generated documents such as journals or diaries. The story should be a self-standing unit of data — a vignette or episode — with a definite beginning, middle, and end.

Example A young adult male describes his strained relationship with his alcoholic father. Motif Coding using the Thompson Motif-Index has been applied to classify the tale type and several significant elements of this story although original researcher- generated Motif Codes could also have been applied. Analysis Whether using an established index or your original creations for Motif Coding, the goal is to label both ordinary and significant elements of a story that have the potential for rich symbolic analysis.

Motif Coding is a creative, evocative method that orients you to the time- less qualities of the human condition, and represents contemporary, even mun- dane, social life with epic qualities. Motifs are part literary element and part psychological association. Additional indexing systems developed after his can be found in reference libraries and websites.

In this profile, Narrative Coding applies the conventions of primarily literary elements and analysis onto qual- itative texts most often in the form of stories. Nevertheless, there may be occasions when the researcher wishes to code participant narratives from a lit- erary perspective as a preliminary approach to the data to understand its sto- ried, structured forms.

Prosaic, poetic, and dramatic elements are used as codes to highlight the structure and properties of this narrative excerpt. Polkinghorne differentiates between paradigmatic and narrative cogni- tion.

And among postmodernists, the process of narrative inquiry is not a solitary research act but a collaborative ven- ture between the researcher and participants.

To most narrative inquirers, insight into the meanings of participant stories depends on deep researcher reflection through careful read- ing of the transcripts and extensive journaling.

Narrative researchers should also be attuned to story structures from the non-European canons and how that influences and affects retelling. Also see Crossley for a superb autobio- graphical and biographical interview protocol for narrative analysis in psy- chology. Coding begins with a precise transcription of the verbal exchange which includes nonverbal cues and pauses between the speakers. B: OK. Simple exchanges such as these can communicate such cultural patterns as status, gender, race, and class differences, etc.

Selected questions assist the ethnographer in coding, interpreting, and reflect- ing on the content and meaning of the verbal exchange. Sample questions include:What is the nature of the relationship? What are the rhythms, vocal tones, and silences contributing to the overall meaning?

Routines and Rituals of structured and symbolically meaningful actions dur- ing our day; 2. Surprise-and-Sense-Making Episodes of the unanticipated or unexpected; 3.

Crises in a verbal exchange or as an overarching pattern of lived experi- ence; and 5. Applications Verbal Exchange Coding is appropriate for a variety of human communication studies and studies that explore cultural practices. Verbal Exchange Coding can also be applied to preexisting secondary data ethnographic texts such as autoethnographies. The guidelines listed above should not suggest an overly systematic approach to analyzing verbal exchanges.

Verbal Exchange Coding is intended as an introductory approach for novices to closely examine the complexity of talk through focused parameters of conversation types and everyday cultural practices. Interpretive meaning through extensive written reflection comparable to an analytic memo rather than traditional margined coding methods is encour- aged. Example A junior high school play production class in an inner city fine arts magnet program has just read a scripted adaptation of a traditional Mexican American folk tale, La llorona The Weeping Woman.

Since Verbal Exchange Coding does not rely on margined entries, the exam- ple will scan across the entire page. The coding narrative follows: NANCY: OK, how can we take the story, this is the old version, how can we update it character-wise and word-wise to also updating it with the rap? Like, how would you say if Maria was beautiful? How would you say that in slang?

We need the updated word and the use of the rap together. I mean, where would you have this take place? GIRL: A drive-by. BOY: She overdosed her kids. BOY: Yeah, they find them in a canal with bullet holes in their heads. BOY: rapping Once upon a time, there was a chica. BOY: You been hanging around with that guy too much. GIRL: And then she lied about it later. GIRL: No cuss words.

CODING: This classroom verbal exchange is mostly ordinary conversation that ever-so- slightly peaks toward skilled conversation before it to accomplish the business of cre- ative work. Nancy asked her students, encouraged them in fact, to create a modern-day version of a violent folk tale. But in her role as public school educator she had to limit read: censor their ideas to what would be acceptable for a public audience read: parents on stage.

Communication of the adolescent voice, the inner city voice, the Hispanic voice, is what progressive multicultural education is all about. So the teacher, like a border patrol officer, has to stop these Hispanic youths from crossing the line.

Lots of high school theatre programs in white suburban communities have faced the same censorship dilemma. The teacher is asking them to adapt a traditional folk tale into modern-day contexts for the purpose of creating art. Continued reflection on the meanings of the classroom verbal exchanges documented above addresses such aspects as the culture of the school, theatre classroom culture, Hispanic culture, adolescent culture, the culture of violence, gang subculture, and their complex interrelationships and overlaps see Appendix C.

The four-step reading and notation of verbatim text examines plot, first-person references as poetic structures, and contrapuntal voices e. Since qualitative inquiry is an emergent process of investigation, these coding methods use tentative labels as the data are initially reviewed. After they have been analyzed in this manner, researchers might proceed to more specific First Cycle or Second Cycle coding methods. Holistic Coding applies a single code to each large unit of data in the cor- pus to capture a sense of the overall contents and the possible categories that may develop.

As the cor- pus is reviewed, the hypothesis-driven codes confirm or disconfirm what was projected, and the process can refine the coding system itself. The method is a preparatory approach to a unit of data before a more detailed coding or cate- gorization process through First or Second Cycle methods.

There are no specific maximum length restrictions for data given a Holistic Code. The coded unit can be as small as one-half a page in length, to as large as an entire completed study. Applications Holistic Coding is appropriate for beginning qualitative researchers learning how to code data, and studies with a wide variety of data forms e. But be aware that with less time to analyze often comes a less substantive report.

In most cases, Holistic Coding is preparatory ground- work for more detailed coding of the data. The researcher might observe that those on-the-job learning curves might be lessened if they were addressed in pre-professional teacher education courses.

Rather than coding datum-by-datum as soon as transcripts or field notes have been prepared for analysis, it is a worthwhile investment of time and cog- nitive energy to simply read and re-read the corpus to see the bigger picture. As qualitative data are collected, coded, and analyzed, Provisional Codes can be revised, modified, deleted, or expanded to include new codes.

Applications Provisional Coding is appropriate for qualitative studies that build on or cor- roborate previous research and investigations. Not only can this list serve as a possible series of Provisional Codes, the items can be codewoven see Chapter Two to explore possible interrelationships related to the phe- nomenon. Example In the field of classroom drama with youth, creative expression by participants is most often realized in one of three ways: nonverbally through body move- ment, gesture, pantomime, etc.

Obviously, when Provisional Codes are first applied to qualitative data, the researcher may soon learn whether each item from the start list has relevance or not.

Researchers should exercise caution with Provisional Codes. A small but vital investment of time and energy will go toward the devel- opment of Provisional Codes. Preparatory pilot study through participant observation and interviews at the actual fieldwork site may yield a more rele- vant set of Provisional Codes than previously published research. As documents are reviewed, a pre-established code from the list can be directly assigned to a selected portion of data. The statistical applications can range from simple fre- quency counts to more complex multivariate analyses.

Applications Hypothesis Coding is appropriate for hypothesis testing and content analysis of the qualitative data set, particularly the search for rules, causes, and explanations in the data. Seasoned researchers will often enter a fieldwork setting or approach a body of data with some idea of what will be present and what will most likely be happening.

However, this does not necessarily suggest that Hypothesis Coding is war- ranted. I hypothesized before the study began that Hispanic children would identify and empathize more with their Hispanic counterpart in the play, while White chil- dren would be more likely to empathize with both characters but identify more with their White counterpart.

But Juan felt that if they wanted to be friends, John would have to learn Spanish. Who was right? Thus the original hypothesis was not deleted but modified as data analysis continued. The results dis- confirmed one portion of the hypothesis. Both groups with somewhat equal measure advocated that Americans needed to know how to speak more than one language.

Though Hispanics attested with more frequency than Whites that Americans have the right to speak whatever language they wish, the dif- ference was not statistically significant.

Even if you discover, like I did in the study described above, that some of your proposed hypotheses are dis- confirmed through discrepant cases or statistical analysis, that in itself is a major learning and forces you to more closely examine the content of your data and thus develop more trustworthy findings. Hypothesis Coding is a mixed-methods approach to data analysis most often applied to content analysis but with some transferability to other qualitative studies.

CAQDAS programs are well suited for Hypothesis Coding since the proposed codes can be entered a priori in their code management systems, and their search functions can help the researcher investigate and confirm possible inter- relationships among the data. They consist of pre-established coding systems or very specific ways of analyzing qualitative data. Though some leeway is provided for context- and site-specific studies, the methods profiled in this section contain directed procedures to follow by their developers.

OCM Outline of Cultural Materials Coding uses an extensive index of cultural topics developed by anthropologists for the classification of fieldwork data from ethnographic studies. It is a systematic coding system which has been applied to a massive data base for the discipline. Protocol Coding outlines the general methods, advantages, and disadvan- tages of following pre-established coding systems developed by other researchers in subject areas related to your own inquiry.

Domain andTaxonomic Coding presents some of the signature analytic meth- ods of anthropologist James P. Spradley for the systematic search for and catego- rization of cultural terms. This method is also primarily for ethnographic studies. The index, consisting of thousands of entries, serves to organize the data base of the Human Relations Area Files HRAF , a massive collection of ethno- graphic field notes and accounts about hundreds of world cultures.

The OCM is a specialized indexing system primarily for anthropologists, but the website is worth browsing by researchers from other disciplines to acquaint themselves with the breadth of possible topics about human expe- rience for field note development. Database management software, particularly for artifact and document coding, is strongly recommended by Bernard , pp. The four OCM numeric codes listed at the beginning apply to the entire excerpt. His closed but loose-fitting vest has intri- cate reflective beading of triangular-shaped and jagged-edged motifs.

This same bead- ing pattern appears sewn as elbow patches on his shirt, headband, and skirt overlay. The bead colors are blue, dark red, light purple, and silver.

A lemon-yellow silk neck scarf is tied once in front and hangs down to his stomach. The skirt appears to be con- structed out of heavy rough leather but is also lemon-yellow in color. Eight-inch long and one-inch wide fringe strips follow along the edge of the skirt, which bounce freely and solidly as he stamps his feet and quickly rotates. A six-inch wide strip of fringe at the front and back of the skirt is dyed burnt orange.

The oval-shaped beaded skirt overlay in front and back is also knee-length. His hoops are saffron-yellow with the same reflec- tive beading patterns and colors at quarter portions of each one, which unifies his basic garments with the hoops.

OCM Codes can also be applied in the margins of field notes when the spe- cific topic changes: 1 1 Eight-inch long and one-inch wide fringe strips follow along the edge of the skirt, which bounce freely and solidly as 2 he stamps his feet and 2 quickly rotates. Protocol Coding is the collection and, in particular, the coding of qualitative data according to a pre-established, recommended, standardized, or prescribed system.

The generally comprehensive list of codes and categories provided to the researcher are applied after her own data collection. Some pro- tocols also recommend specific qualitative and quantitative data analytic tech- niques with the coded data.